In the early 20^th century, the concept of “society” was only applied to humans as a result of the criticism that the theory of evolution is conducive to racism.

The gap between natural scientists and social scientists also widened: the former only studied the behaviors of non-human animals, and the latter were only interested in human culture and behaviors.*

■References (Books, papers, Web articles, etc.)
On Aggression　　Konrad Lorenz　Mariner Books; First edition (October 23, 1974)
The natural history of aggression　　edited by J.D. Carthy, edited by F.J. Ebling　Published for the Institute of Biology by Academic Press; First Edition edition (January 1, 1964)
Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes　　Frans de Waal　Johns Hopkins University Press; 25th anniversary edition (September 30, 2007)
『人類進化論——霊長類学からの展開』　第一章　霊長類学の発想　９～10ページ　　山極寿一　（裳華房、2008）

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*There are not many natural scientists studying or thinking about human society. At the same time, it is rare for non-human organisms to be the subjects of studies in the social sciences.

Additionally, in much of the research done on animal behavior, scientists believe that behavior should be recorded objectively from an external perspective, almost like “God observing the world.” Conversely, many cultural anthropological and sociological studies are based on participatory observation methods, in which researchers observe human societies by entering into them. Although this participatory method is the norm in the humanities, behavioral researchers have avoided “penetrating” the societies of animals as this makes impossible for them to observe the study subjects objectively.

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■The References list of “Evolution of Human Sociality”