How are the dominance relationships between non-sibling females determined?

The dominance hierarchies of female Japanese macaques are generally determined by their maternal family trees, with daughters ranking immediately below their mothers. Female macaques whose mothers are subordinate are submissive to females in the dominant lineage, even if the subordinate-lineage females are older. Subordinate females display a submissive facial expression (called a “grimace”) to the dominant ones, scream, and flee.

■References (Books, papers, Web articles, etc.)
『ニホンザルの生態』　　河合雅雄　（河出書房新社、1969）
『ニホンザルの生態と観察』　　高畑由起夫　（ニュー・サイエンス社、1985）
高畑由起夫．1988．「嵐山B群のニホンザルのオトナのメスの順位について」霊長類研究．1:19-32.

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